Probleemanalyse van essentieel belang

Probleemanalyse van essentieel belang Probleemanalyse Inleiding Bij het opstarten van een project is een probleemanalyse van essentieel belang. Na het bestuderen van het probleem en de vragen van de opdrachtgever, wordt een helder en duidelijk managementprobleem geformuleerd. Naast de opdracht formuleer je wat je gaat onderzoeken, op welke manier je dat gaat doen en waarom. De onderdelen die in de probleemanalyse aan bod komen zijn het managementprobleem, het onderzoeksprobleem, componenten, de onderzoeksdoelstelling gevolgd door de onderliggende onderzoeksvragen en op het einde het theoretisch kader, waar alle begrippen en theorieà «n in vermeld worden. De probleemanalyse wordt aangeboden aan de opdrachtgever, die de analyse goed- of afkeurt. Bij goedkeuring aanvaardt de opdrachtgever dat het projectteam de opdracht gaat uitvoeren. Managementprobleem De NHTV international hogeschool Breda is een allround kennisinstituut op het gebied van recreatie en toerisme. De NHTV leidt niet alleen (inter)nationale studenten op, maar organiseert ook congressen en neemt deel aan workshops en seminars over de hele wereld. De missie van de hogeschool luidt als volgt: NHTV wil een bijdrage leveren aan de maatschappij door in nauwe samenwerking met de internationale werkvelden (jonge) mensen op te leiden tot verantwoordelijke professionals voor een globaliserende werk- en kennisomgeving. De instelling wil medewerkers en studenten inspireren en uitdagen hun talenten optimaal te ontwikkelen, hun kennis en kunde te integreren en deze als professional of als wetenschapper op excellente en duurzame wijze toe te passen in de samenleving. (NHTV, 2010) Daarnaast is de hogeschool nauw betrokken bij het internationale toerisme en recreatieve bedrijfsleven, vooral als het gaat over innovatieve en duurzame ontwikkelingen. De hogeschool is een door de World Tourism Organization gecertificeerde opleiding die serieus meedenkt over etnische vraagstukken in het internationale toerisme. Daarnaast is de NHTV nauw betrokken bij de Initiatiefgroep Duurzaam Uitgaan Toerisme (IDUT). De opleiding Management Toerisme denkt erover om, in navolging van IDUT, een nieuw platform op te richten, namelijk het Internationaal Innovatieplatform Toeristisch Vervoer. De NHTV, de wereld, de toerist en de recreant hebben namelijk à ©Ãƒ ©n ding gemeen: ze zijn altijd in beweging. Het probleem is echter dat er een heldere visie op toeristisch en recreatief vervoer ontbreekt. Niet eerder is nagedacht over of onderzoek gedaan naar aspecten als ethiek, duurzaamheid, snelheid, prijs enzovoorts. Met het oog op de ontwikkelingen naar een beleveniseconomie en zelfs een transformationele economie, wil het Internationaal Innovatieplatform Toeristisch Vervoer een visie laten ontwikkelen op toeristisch-recreatief vervoer die de basis vormt voor een betekenisvol belevingsconcept. Er wordt als het ware een creatieve en overtuigende vertaalslag gemaakt van de droom (visie) naar de daad (concept). Het concept dient vervolgens globaal getoetst te worden op ethische en duurzaamheidaspecten. Tot op heden is er ook geen onderzoek gedaan naar nieuwe volggroepen die aansluiten bij de producten en het concept. Het is de bedoeling dat à ©Ãƒ ©n of meer volggroepen zich aantoonbaar aangesproken gaan voelen door de beleving die deze producten oplevert. De karakteristiek van deze volgroepen dient op basis van de waardegeorià «nteerde lifestyle-segmentatiemodellen gegeven te worden. Daarnaast dient het belevingsconcept aantoonbaar geschikt te zijn voor de ontwikkeling van een aantal verschillende en onderscheidende belevingsproducten. Daarbij dient à ©Ãƒ ©n belevingsproduct op hoofdlijnen uitgewerkt te worden. Uiteindelijk zal aangegeven worden hoe de betrokkenheid en/of binding tussen volggroep en belevingsproduct door interactieve communicatie kan worden bevorderd. Daarbij gaat het om het regisseren van de communicatie. (Handleiding CPO2, 2010) Onderzoeksprobleem Zoals in het managementprobleem beschreven staat, ontbreekt een heldere visie op toeristisch en recreatief vervoer. De NHTV geeft de student Management Toerisme om die reden de opdracht om op basis van een persoonlijke visie op toeristisch recreatief vervoer een sterk belevingsconcept voor een specifieke vorm van toeristisch-recreatief vervoer te ontwikkelen, waaraan verschillende onderscheidende belevingsproducten gekoppeld kunnen worden en waardoor met naam te benoemen volggroepen zich aangesproken en verbonden voelen. Met de introductie van het belevingsconcept voor vakantievervoer dient de eerste publicatie van het Internationaal Innovatieplatform Toeristisch Vervoer gevoed te worden. De compacte vraag die ik mijzelf bij dit project heb gesteld luidt als volgt: Hoe kan ik vanuit een persoonlijke visie komen tot een belevingsconcept? Om antwoord te geven op de bovenstaande onderzoeksvraag dient er informatie te worden verzameld over de diverse aspecten die bij dit project van belang zullen zijn. Zo zal de aanbodkant van het toeristisch-recreatief vervoer in kaart moeten worden gebracht en dient er onderzoek gedaan te worden naar de trends en ontwikkelingen van toeristisch-recreatief vervoer. Daarbij zal er gekeken worden naar de situatie op micro- en meso-niveau. Aan de hand van de micro-analyse dient er in kaart te worden gebracht wat de kernwaarden en motieven zijn, welke in verbinding staan met het toeristisch-recreatief vervoer. Een duidelijk beeld van de bovenstaande aspecten maakt het mogelijk een persoonlijk visie te formuleren waarna je kunt komen tot een belevingsconcept. Componenten Om antwoord te geven op de onderzoeksvragen zijn een aantal deelstudies noodzakelijk om te voorzien in de gedefinieerde informatie- en adviesbehoefte. In de opstartfase diende iedere student een keuze te maken tussen vervoer via land, water of lucht. De keuze is uiteindelijk gevallen op de vervoerssector transport over water. De reden hiervoor is dat het transport over water, in tegenstelling tot andere toeristisch-recreatieve vervoersmogelijkheden een stijgende lijn kent in het aantal passagiers. Daarnaast ontdoet het transport via water zich van zijn stoffige imago en hebben cruisemaatschappijen hun focus gelegd op de bouw van innovatieve schepen en het aanspreken van nieuwe doelgroepen. Het ABCDEF-model loopt als de rode draad door het conceptontwikkelingsproces heen. Deze methodiek is een uitbereiding van het conceptontwikkelingsproces en bevat de onderdelen: aandacht en analyse, broeden en beleven, creà «ren van een concept, design van belevenissen, experience platform en follow up. De ABCDEF-methodiek is kwalitatief van aard en gaat om het blootleggen van het hart of de ziel en deze in conceptvorm te vangen. Allereerst zal worden ingegaan op een nadere uitwerking van de aanbodkant. Er dient onderzocht te worden welke mogelijkheden reisorganisaties bieden, welke trends en ontwikkelingen er van toepassing zijn en waar de vervoerssector zich in onderscheid. Informatie hierover is te vinden op internet, in de databases van Tourpress en de Reisrevue. Daarnaast worden websites van touroperators en transportbedrijven geraadpleegt. Vervolgens zal worden ingegaan op vraag- en (deels) aanbodkant van toeristisch-recreatief vervoer over het water. Deze onderdelen bevat deelvragen die het doel hebben de situatie op macro-, meso- en micro-niveau te beschrijven. De macro-omgeving zal beschreven worden aan de hand van het DSTEPJ-model en de meso-omgeving zal beschreven worden aan de hand van het ABCD-model. De micro-analyse maakt onderdeel uit van de vraagkant, waarbij gekeken wordt naar de kernwaarden en motivaties van reizigers. Bij de micro-analyse zal gebruik worden gemaakt van het Mentality-model van Motivaction, die onderscheid maakt in verschillende sociale milieus. Daarnaast zal bij het onderzoeken van consumententrends publicaties en databases van Tourpress, Reisrevue, NBTC, TNS NIPO en de ANVR geraadpleegd worden. Theorieà «n en begrippen betreffende visie, duurzaamheid en ethiek, concept- en productontwikkeling etc. zijn te vinden in de literatuur van Nijs en Peters Imagineering, Rijkenberg Concepting en Boers en Beunders De andere kant van de vrije tijd. Onderzoeksdoelstelling Inzicht verkrijgen in de aanbodkant, trends en ontwikkelingen en kernwaarden en motivaties van het toeristisch-recreatief vervoer teneinde een visie te ontwikkelen op toeristisch-recreatief vervoer die de basis vormt voor een betekenisvol belevingsconcept. Inzicht verkrijgen in de aanbodkant, trends en ontwikkelingen en kernwaarden en motivaties van het toeristisch-recreatief vervoer teneinde een sterk belevingsconcept voor een specifieke vorm van toeristisch-recreatief vervoer te ontwikkelen, waaraan verschillende onderscheidende belevingsproducten gekoppeld kunnen worden en waardoor met naam te benoemen volggroepen zich aangesproken en verbonden voelen. Onderzoeksvragen Hoe ziet het aanbodkant eruit van toeristisch-recreatief vervoer over het water? Hoe ziet de situatie eruit op macro-niveau? Hoe ziet de situatie eruit op meso-niveau? Hoe ziet de situatie eruit op micro-niveau? Theoretisch kader Het ABCDEF-model loopt als de rode draad door het conceptontwikkelingsproces heen. Deze methodiek is een uitbereiding van het conceptontwikkelingsproces en bevat de volgende onderdelen Analyse en Aandacht. Analyse van vraag als aanbodkant. Inleven in de ziel, de aard, het unieke DNA van het aanbod aan toeristisch recreatief vervoer. Broeden en Beleven. Ontwikkelen van een subjectieve en onderscheidende visie op toeristisch recreatief vervoer en de daarin gekozen sector. Creà «ren van een Concept. Het vertalen van een visie in een concept. Design van belevenissen. Ontwerpen van belevingsproducten, diensten of belevenissen. Experience platform. Emotionele betrokkenheid, loyaliteit creà «ren. Follow up. Het werken met belevingsconcepten en -producten leidt tot innovaties binnen het bedrijf. (Projecthandleiding CPO2, 2010) Bij het maken van een situatieanalyse kan een onderscheid gemaakt worden in een externe (ook wel omgevingsanalyse genoemd) en een interne situatieanalyse. De externe analyse bestaat uit variabelen die van invloed zijn op de activiteiten van de organisatie, maar waarop door de organisatie zelf geen (of weinig) invloed kan worden uitgeoefend. In de literatuur wordt hierbij een verder onderscheid gemaakt in macro-omgeving en meso-omgeving. De macro-omgevingsanalyse, ook wel eens trendanalyse genoemd, wordt gebruikt om de huidige en toekomstige trends en/of gebeurtenissen te lokaliseren, die potentià «le mogelijkheden of bedreigingen vormen voor de organisatie. Bij de eerste onderzoeksvraag zal gebruik worden gemaakt van het DSTEPJ-model, waaronder de demografische factoren, sociaal culturele omgevingsvariabelen, technologische omgevingsvariabelen, economische omgevingsvariabelen, politieke omgevingsvariabelen en juridische variabelen vallen. Demografische factoren: kenmerken die te maken hebben met de Nederlandse bevolking. Economische factoren: kenmerken die te maken hebben met de economie van Nederland. Sociaal-culturele factoren: kenmerken van cultuur en leefgewoonten van Nederland. Technologische factoren: kenmerken van de ontwikkeling op technologisch gebied. Ecologische factoren: kenmerken die te maken hebben met de fysieke omgeving en milieu. Politiek: kenmerken van overheidsbeslissingen. Juridische factoren: kenmerken van overheidsbeslissingen (Intemarketing.nl, 2010) Factoren uit de meso-omgeving hebben te maken met factoren binnen de branche, die van invloed zijn op het functioneren van de organisatie. Hierbij gaat het vooral om marktvormen, marktstructuur en marktorganisatie vanuit de vraagzijde en vanuit de aanbodzijde. En ook de concurrentie- en concurrentieanalyse is hier van belang. De vraag naar vakanties in het algemeen, de binnenlandse vakantie in het bijzonder en specifiek naar kamperen, zijn ontwikkelingen binnen de branche van verblijfsrecreatie, die voor een camping van belang zijn. De meso-analyse zal worden beschreven aan de hand van het ABCD-model, waaronder de afnemers-, bedrijfstak-, concurrentie- en distributieanalyse behoren. Bij de micro-analyse wordt de kernwaarden, motivaties en trends van de consument onderzocht. Dit zal gedaan worden aan het hand van hand van de verschillende Mentality-milieus van Motivaction, waarbij onderscheid wordt gemaakt in socio-demografische gegevens en de normen en waarden van de verschillende milieus. De gemaksgeorià «nteerden: de impulsieve en passieve consument die in de eerste plaats streeft naar een onbezorgd, plezierig en comfortabel leven. De opwaarts mobielen: de carrià ¨regerichte individualisten met een uitgesproken fascinatie voor sociale status, nieuwe technologie, risico en spanning. De nieuwe conservatieven: de liberaalconservatieve maatschappelijke bovenlaag die alle ruimte wil geven aan technologische ontwikkeling, maar zich verzet tegen sociale en culturele vernieuwingen. De kosmopolieten: de open en kritische wereldburgers die postmoderne waarden als ontplooien en beleven integreren met moderne waarden als maatschappelijk succes, materialisme en genieten. De postmaterialisten: de maatschappelijke idealisten die zichzelf willen ontplooien, stelling nemen tegen sociaal onrecht en opkomen voor het milieu. De postmoderne hedonisten: de pioniers van de beleveniscultuur, waarin experiment en het breken met morele en sociale conventies doelen op zichzelf zijn geworden. De traditionele burgerij: de moralistische, plichtsgetrouwe en op de status-quo gerichte burgerij die vasthoudt aan tradities en materià «le bezittingen. De moderne burgerij: de conformistische, statusgevoelige burgerij die het evenwicht zoekt tussen traditie en moderne waarden als consumeren en genieten. (Motivaction.nl, 2010) Werkwijze Aanbodkant van toeristisch-recreatief vervoer Inleiding In dit hoofdstuk zullen we het gaan hebben over de verschillende mogelijkheden binnen toeristisch-recreatief vervoer in het algemeen à ©n gespecialiseerd op de sector vervoer over water. Er zijn drie doelen van het gebruik van transport die toegelicht zullen worden, namelijk: als doorvoer, als bestemming en als toeristische attractie. Mogelijkheden binnen toeristisch-recreatief vervoer Transport als doorvoer Het belangrijkste doel van het gebruik van toeristisch-recreatief vervoer is het transporteren van mensen naar een andere bestemming dan de plaats van herkomst (bijna 90%). Nadeel voor de touroperator is dat hij weinig tot geen controle uit kan voeren op de geboden service. Door middel van yieldmanagement zal er een poging worden gedaan een optimale mix van prijs en bezetting te behalen. Toch kan het vervoer gezien worden als een belevenis, mits er hoog wordt gescoord op de volgende criteria: het type transport, de persoonlijkheid van de toerist, de frequentie van het reizen en de reissamenstelling van de toerist. Deze criteria dienen te worden vergeleken met nadelen van vervoer als lange wachtrijen en vertragingen. Transport als bestemming Eenmaal op de bestemming aangekomen maken toeristen veelvuldig gebruik van vervoers-middelen als huurautos, taxis, busdiensten en veerboten. Vaak spelen vervoerders op de bestemming hierop in door producten aan te bieden voor specifiek gericht zijn op het toerisme. Hierbij kunt u denken aan excursies en kaarten voor het openbare vervoer in het gebied. Vervoer op de vakantiebestemming is goed voor 10% van het totale toeristische gebruik van vervoer. Transport als toeristische attractie In een aantal gevallen is het vervoersmiddel de attractie tussen bestemmingen in à ©Ãƒ ©n of meerdere landen. De grootste markt hiervoor is de cruise-industrie. Daarnaast zijn er voorbeelden van treinreizen als de Oriental Express, dagtrips met een ferry door Engeland en kanaalcruises door Amsterdam. Vormen van reizen De meest voor de hand liggende manier voor het analyseren van toeristisch-recreatief vervoer is door te kijken naar de verschillende vormen van reizen: land, water, spoor en lucht. De keuze van de toerist voor een bepaalde vorm van reizen hangt samen met invloeden als: afstand en tijd, status en comfort, veiligheid en nuttigheid, prijs/ service en dienstverlening, geografische ligging en de hoogte van de concurrentie tussen de verschillende diensten. Componenten Er kunnen vier basiselementen worden onderscheiden, namelijk: de weg, de wachtruimte, het vervoersmiddel en de drijfkracht. De weg kan omschreven worden als het middel waarin het vervoersmiddel kunstmatig (weg, rails) of natuurlijk (lucht, water) opereert. Wachtruimtes geven de reiziger toegang tot het vervoersmiddel of fungeren als schakel tussen verschillende wijzen van vervoer. Niet alle vervoersmiddelen hebben een geavanceerde terminal nodig. Zo stoppen stadsbussen bijvoorbeeld op plaatsen langs weg. Het vervoers-middel is het voertuig dat het vervoer vergemakkelijkt. De aard van het vervoersmiddel wordt beà ¯nvloed door verschillende factoren als: vraag- en technologische ontwikkelingen en drijfkracht, het belangrijkste element in de ontwikkeling van transport. Vervoersmiddelen kennen een steeds grotere capaciteit, zijn sneller en worden vooral milieuvriendelijker. De vervoersindustrie is een concurrentiegevoelige en complexe industrie. Verschillende vormen van vervoer, verschillende bedrijven en verschillende landen beconcurreren elkaar met hun product. Consumenten kiezen aan de hand van de volgende factoren voor een bepaald vervoersmiddel of bedrijf: veiligheid, kosten, snelheid, afstand, gemak, vertrek- en aankomsttijd, betrouwbaarheid, beschikbaarheid, flexibiliteit, service, comfort, prikkels en status en prestige. (Tourism principles and practice, 2010) Toeristisch-recreatief vervoersaanbod van de sector water Toeristisch-recreatief vervoer over het water kunnen we verdelen in vervoer per veerboot en cruiseschip. Rondreizen per cruiseschip zijn vervolgens onder te verdelen in zeecruises en riviercruises. Er zijn twee verschillen tussen aan te duiden tussen zee- en riviercruises: het soort water dat bevaren wordt heeft gevolgen voor het soort schip en bij een zeecruise wordt er s nachts gevaren, in tegenstelling tot bij de riviercruise, waar varen zelf juist de grootste attractie is en daardoor overdag gevaren wordt. De cruise is voortgekomen uit de overcapaciteit aan schepen, die ontstond toen er in de jaren vijftig geen of nauwelijks meer interesse bestond voor de lijndienstscheepvaart. Sinds de jaren tachtig en het begin van de negentiger jaren is de cruisebusiness in een stroomversnelling terecht gekomen. Jaarlijks boeken zon tien miljoen mensen wereldwijd een cruise. De schepen hebben zich ontwikkelt tot gestroomlijnde drijvende resorts die duizenden passagiers kunnen vervoeren. Ze var en voornamelijk in het Caribisch gebied, de Bahamas, naar Alaska en zelfs Antarctica. Daarnaast zijn er trans-Atlantische cruises naar New York en bescheiden cruises in de Middellandse Zee. In tegenstelling tot zeecruises vinden riviercruises voornamelijk plaats in Europa. Voor de Nederlandse markt zijn bestemmingen binnen Europa dan ook veruit het belangrijkste. Er worden cruises aangeboden op de rivieren: de Rijn, de Maas, de Donau, de Elbe, de Rhà ´ne, de Seine en de Don. Luxueuze riviercruises buiten Europa komen voornamelijk voor op de Nijl en de Mississippi. Ruim honderd jaar geleden werd de akte van Mannheim getekend, door landen die aan de Rijn liggen. In deze akte werd het varen op de Rijn aan regels onderworpen, hetgeen een grote invloed heeft voor de huidige scheepsvaart op de Rijn. Eà ©n van de onderdelen was, dat de schepen op de Rijn en haar zijrivieren bepaalde afmetingen niet mochten overschrijden, zodat à ©Ãƒ ©n van de belangrijkste kenmerken van een riviercruiseschip is in tegenstelling tot het zeecruiseschip dat het maximaal vier verdiepingen mag hebben, waardoor het schip onder de bruggen door kan varen. Door de bovengenoemde voorschriften komen in West-Europa de riviercruiseschepen niet boven de capaciteit van tweehonderd passagiers uit. De tarieven worden voornamelijk bepaald door de luxe van het schip. Prijzen liggen tussen de circa â‚ ¬ 100,- en â‚ ¬ 350,- per persoon per dag. (De wereld in toeristische bestemmingen, 2004) Wat betreft het vervoer van voertuigen en goederen op korte overtochten, bieden veerboten goedkope, betrouwbare en veilige diensten. Vervoer per ferry is de enige mogelijkheid in het geval van een afgelegen en klein eiland waar geen luchthaven aanwezig is. Denk bijvoorbeeld aan Griekenland, waar slechts 15 luchthavens tot 95 bewoonde eilanden dienen. In dit geval verbinden grote veerboten het vasteland, de havens en de eilanden met elkaar. Bovendien verzorgen kleinere regionale veerboten het vervoer tussen de eilanden, met name in het hoogseizoen. In veel gevallen kan de luchtvaart een uitstekend alternatief zijn voor het vervoer tussen de grotere eilanden en het vasteland. Het belangrijkste voordeel van de ferry in vergelijking met het vliegtuig is de prijs, gecombineerd met het feit dat passagiers op de bestemming gebruik kunnen maken van hun eigen voertuig. De populariteit van autovakanties en self-drive pakketten, evenals de invoering van het roll-on-roll-off principe die het voor de haven mogelijk maakt een groter volume van de voertuigen te verwerken tonen de stijging van de vraag naar veerdiensten aan. De geleidelijke liberalisering van het luchtvervoer in Europa, de daling van de kosten van vliegtickets en de ontwikkeling van alternatieve vervoersmogelijkheden hebben ervoor gezorgd dat veerdiensten vors investeren om hun schepen te verbeteren, de snelheid te verhogen en recreatieve voorzieningen te ontwikkelen. Routes met langere overtochten bieden de reiziger tegenwoordig een ruime keuze aan recreatieve voorzieningen en een consument-gerichte service. Moderne schepen als de catamaran en draagvleugelboten zijn in de afgelopen decennia op bepaalde routes ingevoerd. Moderne schepen hebben meer vermogen dan de traditionele veerdiensten en arriveren dus sneller op hun bestemming. Ze varen tot drie keer sneller dan een normale veerboot, terwijl ze een grote wendbaarheid en een snelle turn-around hebben in de haven. Daarnaast nemen ze veel minder ruimte in beslag dan traditionele veerdiensten waardoor ze een minimum aan dokfaciliteiten nodig hebben. Moderne schepen trekken dan ook voornamelijk up-market toeristen aan die de wens hebben hun bestemming zo spoedig mogelijk te bereiken. Nadelen van deze schepen: ze zijn veel duurder dan traditionele veerboten, kwetsbaarder in slechte weersomstandigheden en kunnen luidruchtig zijn. Naast de veerboot, het cruiseschip, de catamaran en de draagvleugelboot kennen we nog een aantal categorieà «n, zoals de binnenvaart, kleine pleziervaartuigen, het zeilschip en de rondvaartboot. Kenmerken van deze vervoersmogelijkheden zijn dat ze vaak op de bestemming zelf gebruikt worden of bevaren worden door de eigenaar van het vaartuig. Daardoor worden ze niet allemaal beschouwd als toeristisch-recreatief vervoer. (Tourism principles and practice, 2010) Recente cijfers cruisetoerisme: Terwijl een groot deel van de Nederlandse reisbranche de negatieve gevolgen van de economische crisis ondervindt, is de cruisesector bezig met een spectaculaire opmars. De cruisemarkt toont aan zich onder lastige omstandigheden aanzienlijk in de toeristische sector te blijven ontwikkelen. Nederland heeft daarentegen een flinke achterstand in te halen op echte cruisenaties, zoals de Groot-Brittannià «, Italià «, Duitsland, Frankrijk en Spanje. In 2008 werden er 4,5 miljoen cruisepassagiers geteld uit Europa, waarvan er 1,5 miljoen uit Groot-Brittannià « kwamen en 0,9 miljoen uit Duitsland. Desondanks is Nederland bezig met een opmars en de meest recente cijfers voor Nederland liegen er niet om. In 2008 nam het aantal Nederlandse cruisepassagiers al met ruim 44 procent toe tot ruim 48.600 en in het eerste kwartaal van 2009 kon de opgaande lijn voortgezet en versterkt worden, aldus Norbert van der Glas, voorzitter van de Dutch Cruise Council (DCC). Aan het einde van het jaar verwacht hij tenminste 60.000 cruisepassagiers te verwelkomen, wat een stijging betekend van 25% ten opzichte van het jaar daarvoor. Tot 1 april 2009 boekten ruim 38.000 Nederlanders een cruisvakantie, 47 procent meer dan in dezelfde periode in 2007. Als de prognose voor heel 2009 uitkomt is het a antal cruisereizigers in twee jaar bijna verdubbeld. De cruisemarkt is in rap tempo bezig zich te ontdoen van haar stoffige imago en spreekt een steeds jonger publiek aan. De beeldvorming is zich bij een breed publiek ingrijpend aan het wijzigen. Dat komt niet alleen door de voortdurende vlootvernieuwing, maar ook door de verjonging en modernisering van activiteiten aan boord. Natuurlijk hebben we nog steeds veel senioren onder onze passagiers, maar ook steeds meer families vinden cruisen geweldig, zo zegt Norbert van der Glas. Tenslotte krijgt de cruisemarkt een opwaartse impuls door het groeiend aantal vertrekken vanuit Nederlandse havens, verwacht Van der Glas. Mensen zien dat of horen daarover en krijgen dan ook zelf zin om op reis te gaan. Voor cruiseschepen die in Amsterdam hun thuishaven krijgen zal het effect door de verwachte komst van een tweede cruiseterminal nabij de Coentunnel op langere termijn positief worden beà ¯nvloed. De huidige Passenger Terminal Amsterdam (PTA) zal dan vooral voor dagbezoek van cruises worden gebruikt. Naar verwachting zal die ontwikkeling in de loop van 2013/2014 haar beslag krijgen. De spectaculaire opmars van de cruisesector werden gepresenteerd tijdens de lancering van de Dutch Cruise Council in 2009. Daarin hebben twintig rederijen of hun vertegenwoordigers in Nederland zich verenigd om samen het cruiseproduct in de breedste zin van het woord te promoten bij reisbranche en consument. De situatie op macro-niveau Inleiding In dit hoofdstuk zal onderzoek gedaan worden naar trends en ontwikkelingen op macro-niveau. Het doel van trendonderzoek is om voorspellingen te doen op de langere termijn. Het verschil met modes en rages is dat deze grillig en tijdelijk zijn, in tegenstelling tot trends waarbij het om langdurige, fundamentele, autonome maatschappelijke ontwikkelingen gaat. Er zal in dit hoofdstuk, tenzij anders vermeld, gebruik worden gemaakt van de andere kant van de vrije tijd (2007) en het artikel Trendwatching Trends voor 2010 (2009). Demografische ontwikkelingen De belangrijkste demografische trends in de westerse wereld zijn vergrijzing, ontgroening en gezinsverdunning. Vergrijzing betekent de opkomst van actieve en koopkrachtige senioren. Daarnaast ontstaat een groep ouderen die met een zeer beperkt inkomen dito mogelijkheden hebben. De ontgroening leidt tot een afname van de jongerenmarkt qua omvang, maar deze wordt deel gecompenseerd door toegenomen bestedingsmogelijkheden. De gezinsverdunning leidt tot een toename van het aantal uren huishoudelijke arbeid en daarmee op macro-niveau tot een afname van de hoeveelheid vrije tijd. De tijdsbesparende functie van nieuwe huishoudelijke apparatuur wordt daardoor op macro-niveau ook grotendeels tenietgedaan. Bevolking per component Net als de bevolkingsgroei laat de huishoudensgroei een langzaam afnemend verloop zien (Van Duin en Loozen, 2009). Ondanks het feit dat de huishoudensgroei de komende jaren met 0,5 tot 1 procent per jaar zal groeien, zal deze in 2040 geleidelijk tot nul zijn afgenomen. De relatieve groei van het aantal huishoudens zal in de aankomende jaren tweemaal hoger liggen dan die van het aantal inwoners. Dit wordt veroorzaakt door het groeiende aantal alleen-staanden, waardoor de gemiddelde grootte van huishoudens voortdurende afneemt. Een andere belangrijke oorzaak is de vergrijzing. Ouderen zijn na het verlies van hun levenspartner vaker alleenstaand dan personen van middelbare leeftijd. De laatste groep kiest er sinds de jaren zeventig steeds meer voor om ongehuwd samen te wonen. Omdat ongehuwde stellen hogere scheidingsrisicos met zich meedragen, zal deze informalisering gepaard gaan met een toenemende instabiliteit. De verwachting is dat de huishoudensver-dunning rond 2040 vrijwel uitgewe rkt is. Vergrijzing/ ontgroening Uit cijfers van het Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek die de nieuwe regionale prognose beschrijft van de periode 2009-2040 blijkt dat de vergrijzing in Nederland in de afgelopen jaren is toegenomen. In de periode tussen het einde van de Tweede Wereldoorlog en het begin van de jaren zeventig lag het aantal geboorten in Nederland beduidend hoger dan in de jaren ervoor en erna. Dit had tot gevolg dat Nederland hedendaags een grote bevolkingsgroep van 39-63-jarigen heeft. Het aantal ouderen zal door de instroom van de 39-63-jarigen vanaf 2011 snel stijgen. Het aandeel van 65-plussers zal stijgen van 15 procent in 2009 naar 26 procent rond 2040. Door de stijgende levensverwachting blijven ouderen bovendien steeds langer in leven. Van de mensen die dit jaar 65 werden zal naar verwachting in 2025 ruim 70 procent 80 jaar worden. Van de mensen die in 1990 65 jaar werden, haalde slechts zon 60 procent de 80 jaar. Het verschil in vergrijzing tussen stad en platteland komt duidelijk tot uiting indien gekeken wordt naar de verstedelijkingsgraad. Niet-stedelijke gemeenten hebben over het algemeen een oudere bevolking dan stedelijke gemeenten. Volgens de prognose neemt dat verschil de komende decennia nog iets toe. In de regios Amsterdam, Den Haag, Rotterdam en Utrecht blijft het aandeel ouderen tot 2040 lager dan een kwart. In deze regios zijn de grote steden economische groeipolen en deze oefenen, gecombineerd met een groot aanbod aan (onderwijs) faciliteiten, een sterke aantrekkingskracht op jongeren uit. Bevolkingsgroei en -krimp Na de sterke bevolkingsgroei in de jaren vijftig, zestig en zeventig, veroorzaakt door de aanhoudende geboortegolf en de grote stromen immigranten die Nederland ontving, is hier in de 21ste eeuw langzaam een kentering in gekomen. In snel tempo daalde de bevolkingsgroei in de eerste helft van dit decennium en bereikte in 2006 een dieptepunt toen de bevolking met slechts 24 duizend personen groeide en er voor het eerst sinds lange tijd sprake was van een vertrekoverschot. In 2007 trok de immigratie weer sterk aan, met een recordaantal van 143 duizend in 2008. In de bevolkingsprognose van het CBS wordt verwacht dat de bevolkings-groei van Nederland nog zon 30 jaar zal aanhouden. Wel zal het tempo veel lager liggen dan in het verleden. Is krimp op nationaal niveau dus nog niet aan de orde, voor bepaalde regios en steden ligt de situatie anders. Diverse grote steden hebben, als gevolg van suburbanisatie, in de tweede helft van de vorige eeuw hun inwonertal zien afnemen. Deze trend is over igens gekeerd door nieuwe inzichten in het beleid en daarmee samenhangend meer woningbouw aan de randen van de grote steden. Meer informatie over deze ontwikkeling is te vinden onder het verstedelijking, verderop in dit hoofdstuk. Huishoudensgroei en -krimp/ Afnemende omvang van huishoudens In beleidskringen heeft de discussie over groei en krimp meestal betrekking op het aantal personen. Voor de woningbouw is het echter veel belangrijker hoe de ontwikkel

Drama Homework

The chosen character was Mrs. Johnston, she was a very calm and she cared a lot about her children but she didn't have conditions to have twins so she cited to give one to Mrs. Lyons because she knew that Mrs. Lyons would take good care Of her child and the child would have a good education. ‘ decided to explore the lion because they both have similarities, for example, mothers lion really care about her children.My eyebrows were raised, my mouth was little bit open to show that was shocked my hands were holding the chair very strongly and aggressive because lions are aggressive then I quickly got up and I gave three big large steps towards my partner, because lions have big paws and they are very fast. As a bit louder than her and my voice was bit pitched to show that I was transforming my character into a lion and my eyes were wide open, my eyebrows were raised from the inner sides to show sadness so I grabbed her clothes to show was desperate, I was nearly on my knees.My eye brows pulled downwards towards the inner sides to show anger my mouth was wide open, I quickly stepped away from her because wanted to calm myself but my partner was getting a bit closer to me. Thought that both characters' personality were similar because they are both retroactive and they really care about their children like for example, when Mrs. Johnston gave one of her twins she was thinking about his future and that he would have a better education and I think that a lion would do the same thing just to see their child grow in a better way.Another reason how linked both characters' personality was that they are both brave and strong for example, Mrs. Johnston would do anything so her family can have something to eat even though that she hasn't got a man to help her and a lion would do the same thing just to keep her children fed. The way transformed the animal characteristics into my character was that, a lion has big paws so their movement is big and large so my character ha d to have big Steps and large to show that I was pretending to be a lion.Another way I transformed the animal characteristics was that lions, are loud so whenever I was talking, I was always a bit louder than my partner to show how I was describing the lion. When I was exploring the lions characteristics was acting like a real lion, how they walk, how they attack, how they express their feelings, how protective hey are, how they relate with others etc.. When I was sure about how the lions are, started to act like Northernmost but with a lion personality but in a human body, for example my facial expression was angry to show that I was describing a lion.Another example the steps of a lion are big and large so I had to make the same movement as them but at the same time as a lady. What have noticed from my partner was that she looked a bit dizzy, because she was balancing side to side in a slowly way when she walked. Her facial expression, her eyes were wide open to show that she was paying attention ND I thought she wanted to show that she wanted me to get scared of her and that she wanted me to be possessed because of her eye contact.

How Technology Has Changed The World - 1909 Words

There are hundreds of workout trends and ways to work out. Ranging from yoga to powerlifting, everyone likes to work out in their own way. Ever since the begining of history new ideas have been introduced into the world and every single one of them has been criticized and believed to be wrong by some people. CrossFit, as a new idea is being critized and called out for suposedly being more harmful to the ones that practice it than beneficial. Before analyzing this style of training we should learn more about how it began and about its founder Greg Glassman. Glassman grew up in San Fernando Valley of California. As a teenager, he participated in various sports being gymnastics his favorite. He wanted to come up with a way of training that was as taxing as gymnastics but that didnt require a regular gym to train. So with his dads help, they turned their garaje into a gym. (Murphy, 24) He started with basic movements like bench press and curls just to realize that he nedded something more challenging since this was to easy for him because of his gymnastics background eventhouht this movements would have been a hard workout for most people. He needed something equivalent to the stress and exhaustion that one gymnastics routine gives you. From there he came up with a series of numbers to go by, which are 21-15-9. In his garage he subjected himself to a workout that in his mind was an equivalent to a rings routine which consist ed of 21 thrusters, 21 pull-ups, 15 thrusters, 15 pullShow MoreRelatedHow Technology Has Changed The World862 Words   |  4 PagesThe World Keeps Changing. I watched my dad, as he fixed the television. He removed the back of the TV, and pulled out a tray of glass tubes. I took a few steps back; and, peeked from around a corner. â€Å"Can you take out the scary movies?† I asked. My dad laughed; and tried to explain how the TV worked. I was five years old, three and a half feet tall, with two long ponytails, and big teeth: a curious child. I asked questions all the time. When my family tired of my questions, they sent me to playRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed The World Essay1996 Words   |  8 PagesTechnology has changed the way companies approach every aspect of their business. Over the past few years many businesses are trying to figure out how to keep the bricks and mortar alive now that the majority of sales can be made online. Things such as the internet, mobility, and social media has paved new roads and made it easy to operate and compete in a world market. With technology constantly changing and improving the world is forced to rethink their strategies on how to gain a competitiveRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed The World1415 Words   |  6 Pagesaround the world. Every vicinity has its own way of reaching out to people with the means of the conventional newspaper. It could be seen that billions of people subscribe for the daily papers all over the world. We could see a tradition that has been made by everyone to read their morning newspaper while enjoying a cup of coffee. Nonetheless, reading newspaper has never been the same ever since internet got familiarized to the public. People have observed how the impact of technology changed the wayRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed The World2048 Words   |  9 PagesWhat has changed in skateboarding photography since the 1960s, what technology has helped make these changes and how has the technique of skateboarding photography been altered over the years? Despite what most people think skateboarding photography is an extremely difficult and artistic form that requires not only does the talents of skilled photographers but it also requires the knowledge of a skateboarder to know how these photos should look. In the 1960s skateboarding was hardly seen let aloneRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed The World Essay2615 Words   |  11 PagesABSTRACT A modern classroom has an onslaught for technology which is a whetstone with which the education system can be sharpened. Technology has opened the doors to expand the minds and change the world. Information Technology usage in education sector is widely used throughout the globe and has become a part of every pupil and tutor. It has changed the teaching methods, conducting examinations and utilizing resources. It is well adapted by the students and the tutors alike and it is becomingRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed The World993 Words   |  4 Pages Technology has changed the world, it has made most individuals lives better, faster and in many cases easier, but it has dumped so much information into a â€Å"cloud† that temps the entire world into wanting to expose all the secrets. In the new technology age does that mean what use to be private is no longer private, or that any government has the right to any and all information to protect the good of all at the expense of the individual? Along with our new technology, encryption was developedRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed The World Today1411 Words   |  6 Pages In this research paper i will be talkin g about bridges and their importance to the world today. I will also go into detail on how bridges were in the past and how the first bridges were made by nature. I will compare bridges from the past to how technology has changed the way bridges are built today in the modern era. The more we advance in technology the more ca-pabilities we have too make bridges that support so much more weight. As the improvements are made bridges are just becoming safer andRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed Our World1171 Words   |  5 PagesThe rapid development in media technology has changed our world in many ways. It presented a variation of challenges and expanded several opportunities for people to shape their social life. For example, Skype, one of the many instant worldwide communication accesses, has helped people gain the benefit of diverse social networks. It altered how people communicate, relate to each other, and perform their business and daily affairs very easily within a long dist ance range. However, the extraordinaryRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed Literature And The World1981 Words   |  8 PagesHow technology is continually changing literature and the world Writing on stones, transferring and printing paper, and the pony express are now a way of the past and there is no reason for people to ever see a need to revert back to those archaic ways. Technology has changed the way we perceive, interpret, and even write literature, by creating the ability for everyone to write, through social networks, reviews, and blogging, and it has been for the better. Technology has, and will continue toRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed Changing World1769 Words   |  8 Pages Its is said that the world is changing all time. Most people don t see it and some are even stuck in the past and don t even know that they are. Some think that they are keeping up with the newest technology for almost everything but don’t realize that it is changing monthly, weekly, daily, or even by the hour. No, by the hour means there might not being something new coming out but what is supposed to be new is changing upgrading becoming new. Then there are the people who are behind it all

Knowledge of Psychology - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 26 Words: 7944 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Introduction One of the most important bodies of knowledge is psychology. It is through psychology that so many disorders have been dealt with. The disorders referred to here are disorders to do with the state of the mind as well as the environment affecting the well being of the mind of the individual. An example of a disorder that psychologists treat is referred to as sexual compulsive behavior. Many people would still be in problems were it not for psychology. Through psychology, other bodies of knowledge have benefited. As any body of knowledge, psychology has grown to have branches within it and one of them which are relevant in this research paper is critical psychology. This research paper is going to deal with the question; Is critical Psychology essential to clients rights in Mainstream Psychology? This research is going to argue that Critical Psychology is essential to clients rights in Mainstream Psychology. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Knowledge of Psychology" essay for you Create order The research paper is going to look at psychology and give an overview of psychology Then move on to critical psychology where it will give a detailed explanation of what critical psychology is all about by looking at how it came to existence and what it is all about then finally relate it to mainstream psychology so as to show how relevant it is in psychology. Critical psychology is a branch of psychology that was developed with the aim of criticizing the mainstream psychology. It also has a goal or a purpose which is to try and put into practice the knowledge that psychology has accumulated into practice and at the same time learning something new without being rigidly constrained within the borders of psychology. Psychology knowledge is used in ways that are progressive under critical psychology. The main focus of critical psychology is the use of social change in its bid to criticize mainstream psychology but also as a tool to treat as well as prevent psychopathology. Many criticism bullets have been shot at mainstream psychology. The most common highlights the manner in which mainstream psychology does not put into consideration or ignores deliberately the way in which the differences in power between the classes as well as the groups of society can greatly have an impact on the well-being of the person in terms of the mind and the physical bodies of either individuals or groups of people. This is very relevant material. A body of knowledge that is not constantly criticized is a body of knowledge that tends not to grow over time. It is just like a life that is never criticized and never examined. Before criticizing, there is examination. When something is examined then that means there loopholes within the existence of something are looked into and the relevance of the thing in todays world. A human being will want to be current with the fast growing world and he or she is always constantly looking at ways in which he or she can improve him or he rself. A human being is always updating him or herself to be current with the world and the changing times. This may explain the reason people do not dress in the olden day fashion styles but embrace what the fashion brings. An employee will take a course in something so as t upgrade him or herself in the field of work a person is. The human beings who listen to criticisms and work on them well always improve themselves and become better people in society but those who done never grow much. It is clear that criticism is a very aspect of growth in todays world. Businesses pay a lot of money in order to be criticized! They do this by asking their customers how their company has served them. They probe consumers with a wide range of questions in a bid to get the worst out of people about the companys product or products. This can be done with the online focus groups that are being used as marketing tools at the end of the day because the product that will emerge will be based on the improvements that the customers said they will want to see. This is the same thing with mainstream psychology. Given the nature of mainstream psychology then it would make sense for there to be a body that looks into psychology as a body of knowledge to identify the things that can be done better and the factors that have to be considered when treating psychopathology. Mainstream psychology has not mentioned the impact that the various social groups and differences we have in society can have o n an individual. Say for example that in a neighborhood, there are those that are doing really well and those that are not doing so well in terms of the financial stability. Most of the times rather than not, the people who are doing very well will come together and form some kind of social group and within this social group, they will have their own way of thinking then in the other group where people are not doing so well, there will be a way of thinking. With time these two groups will always compare themselves. This may explain why some rich people with no happiness and no people to love in their lives envy the genuineness of the love of people in the poor settings and the genuineness of their love for each other. This has an impact on the mental well being as well as the physical well being of a person. One may start to limit him or herself and decide that some things are a certain group of people and some are for a different group of people. There are many people who are a liv ing proof of such influences and have either become very poor as a result or very rich as a result. It is therefore very clear and important on the role critical psychology plays in the application of mainstream psychology. It acts as an update of mainstream psychology as well as a tool to keep mainstream psychology on its toes. It also brings psychology to life as it ensures that it is practical in its approach during the treatment of psychopathology. This is a very important aspect of critical psychology. This is the main reason as to why this research paper is going to look at the relevance of critical psychology in the role of mainstream psychology. Mainstream psychology has to be very grateful to critical psychology as critical psychology gives mainstream psychology life. Overview of Psychology The study of psychology started when the world started to civilize. During this time, human beings got to try and explain the reasons behind almost everything they found into existence. Te civilizations of Egypt, Persia, China, India as well as Greece were the first to try and study the humans as well as try to explain why some humans behaved in a certain way and others behaved in another. The ancient Muslim physicians and psychologists introduced the experimental and clinical approach that psychology has today. They even went ahead to build hospitals to cater for people with psychological problems. More steps were made when the French physiologist who went by the name Pierre Cabanis added the biological aspect of psychology in the year 1802. He had done expensive biology studies and based on the knowledge he had acquired in biology, he explained the human mind from the same perspective. He asserted that the souls as well as sensibility characterize the nervous system. (Levin Troiden, 1988) Psychology had not become a field of study until the German physician whose name was Wilhelm Wundt built the first ever laboratory for the sole purpose of the study of psychology at an institution of higher learning referred to as the Leipzig University. Wundt became known as the father of psychologyÂ? because of this brave move. It is no wonder that on the very same year that the laboratory was built which was the year 1879, the year was labeled the date psychology was born. An American who was a psychologist as well as a philosopher wrote a book in 1890 which laid the solid foundation son which psychology is built for many scholars of psychology. Hermann Ebbinghaus is also a very crucial contributor to the psychology bode of knowledge that did a lot of research and experimental studies on the memory compartment of the mind. A Russian who was a guru in psychology also contributed to the knowledge of psychology as we know it today. His name is Ivan Pavlov. He came up with a process human beings use to learn according to him and is referred to as the classical conditioning. In the mid 20th century, most of the work done by the psychology pioneers mentioned is referred to as experimental psychology as most of this work was concerned with the information that was collected from various sectors and subjects along with the processing of the same information. The information gathered during this time is a subset of cognitive science. This period is seen as a period that brought a revolution because the development made by the various pioneers of psychology answered as well as reacted to the different kinds of ways of thinking that were in existence and at that time, there were two major schools of thought; behaviorism and psychodynamics (Lopez, Schmidt Blanco, 2007). (Syed, 2002) Psychoanalysis is a psychotherapy that was developed by Sigmund Freud who was an Australian physician. His psychology was based on the methods of interpreting of the mind, the observations of patients with mental problems or problems that were related to mental problems and introspection. He concentrated on resolving of the unconscious conflict, psychopathology as well as the mental distress of the human being. The theories that were coined by Freud were popular because they addressed issues of sexuality, the unconscious mind and also repression. The society saw the discussion of the problems Freud tried to tackle as a taboo. He managed to engage society in such discussions and proved to them that such issues could be discussed openly. It helps to deal with issues when conversations about the issues are held then the way forward formulated. Psychoanalysis was criticized and seen not to be efficient enough as it wasnt empirical and had not proven to withstand experimental tests. John B. Watson founded behaviorism. This was inclined towards determinism as well as positivism. Behaviorism was based on the premise that the use of animals to experiment could give a more in-depth understanding of psychosocial behavior such as analysis that is psychonamic in nature. The behaviorists believed the scientific research methods would result in pursuing of the necessary weapons needed to control the problems life presents rather than searching for truths which are seen to be timeless. Behaviorists maintained that much of the components of the human mind are not open to the scrutiny of science and that scientific psychology should rely on the behavior observed. This led to behaviorist analyzing the behavior of humans and relating the behavior with the environment in which the human being exists or interacts with. The behaviorism model of psychology has been challenged and its fall in part paved the way for more models to come into existence (Syed, 2002). (Khaleefa, 1999)In reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, humanism and existentialism emerged in the mid 20th century. Here the whole person was analyzed and not just some parts of the person. Humanism focused on practical human issues such as aloneness, meaning, self-identity, freedom as well as death. Emphasis was not on pathology but on determinism rejection, the positive growth concern as well as subjective meaning. Abraham Maslow an American psychologist played a major role in the development of humanism. There was the formulation of the hierarchy of human needs, client-centered therapy and Gesalt therapy. Existentialism focuses on the human nature as being neutral. It also focused on anxiety and positively assessed it. Existentialism argued that the human themes such as freewill, death and meaning are shaped by existing myths as well as narrative patterns. The human themes are allowed as authentic by the human freewill. (Levin Troiden, 1988) The cognitive revolution gave birth to cognitivism as a strain of thought. Naomi Chomsky is responsible for this. Cognitivism does not support the idea that research and analysis ignoring the innate child contribution to human behavior. Cognitivism had proven to have a practical approach as it assisted in the understanding of weapons operations during the World War II. By the end of the 20th century, cognitivism had taken the psychology world and other related subjects by storm. New concepts to replace the ones that were being used in behaviorism and psychoanalytic strains of thinking were formulated such a subliminal processing and implicit memory. Cognitive psychology did not throw all the work that was done by behaviorists and psychoanalysts but it took the better of the two worlds, made it make sense and incorporated it into cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology comprised of various subfield that deal with psychology such as neuroscience, philosophy of the mind as well as computer science. One cannot strictly follow one school of thought and claim to completely understand the human mind. All schools of thought are very crucial in the understanding of the human mind. Modern psychology has come up with a school of thought that integrates all the other existent schools of thought; the biopsychosocial approach. This is so as to make it clear that any human mental process or behavior is governed by many interrelated biological, psychological as well as other social factors (Syed, 2002). Psychology is a very wide field and so much is yet to be learnt in the psychology field. There exists several subfield of psychology. In other words, we can easily come up with a long list of the psychology topics as well as the disciplines that psychology encompasses. Abnormal psychology as the name suggests involves the study of behavior that deviates from normal behavior. Biological psychology is the study that involves a combination of the biological processes in relation to the state of the mind. Biological psychology is related to cognitive neuroscience, neuropsychology as well as physiology. Clinical psychology is a subfield of psychology that deals with the application of psychology knowledge with the aim of solving problems to do with distress, personal development as well as the general well being of humans. Other subfields of psychology include; counseling psychology, cognitive psychology, critical psychology, comparative psychology, forensic psychology, educational psychology, development psychology, evolutionary psychology, legal psychology, global psychology, industrial psychology, health psychology, quantitative psychology, occupational health psychology, personality psychology, school psychology as well as social psychology (Miller, 1983) When professions in the psychology field research, they draw knowledge from other bodies of knowledge so as to understand the psychology phenomena. They can do this by abduction, deduction or induction. In any psychological research project, there is no reliance on only one type of inference but all of them help when used together. There are psychologists that do nothing but research on psychology. They play a very important role in adding to the existing knowledge that psychology has so far accumulated. These researchers make use of controlled experiments, animal studies, quantitative and qualitative research, qualitative and descriptive research methods, survey questionnaires, observations in natural settings, computational modeling, longitudinal studies, animal studies and lastly, neuropsychological methods (Steffens, 2006). Psychology has been criticized to be a fuzzyÂ? science. The main reason is because there is no pre-paradigm being that we can base psychology on. Some of the interests in psychology such as well being, thinking, personality, emotion and many more cannot be measured and inferential statistics applied to it. The empirical aspect is not complete as some things cannot be assigned a number value. The testing of hypothesis is normally not up to standard as most psychologists are not adequately train to be able to analyze data. The criticism sometimes comes from one psychologist to another especially when one is research oriented and the other is clinical oriented. One side may argue that the clinical practices are not backed by empirical evidence and the other side may argue that experiments are done in controlled environments which are not the same as the real world situations. There is also concern that the scientific theories of psychology are miles apart from the actual application of psychology. It is more like going to school to study something then not applying the same thing in the profession one studied for. Critical Psychology By the fact that the word critical psychology has the word psychology at the very end than this means that it is a branch of psychology. Just the same way you would have people that bear the last name in a family setting, this would tell you that the two children belong to the same father. The word critical is used as it in itself is critical as it tries to bring out the aspects that mainstream psychology has continually ignored or not considered. Its main aim is to criticize mainstream psychology and this was the premise on which this branch called critical psychology came into existence. It points out other factors that may also explain the reason as to why some people think the way they think as well as make us understand the reason as to why some people are not mentally well and why some people are not physically well. Even before getting into the details of critical psychology, it is already clear that the role of critical psychology in mainstream psychology is very important. T he fact that critical psychology provides some kind of checks and balances in the psychology body of knowledge is a very big reason for one to argue that for sure critical psychology plays a major role in mainstream psychology because it acts as a push to mainstream psychology for it to grow and for it to incorporate some of the things that have been hidden from it or may have not been in existence when the body of knowledge was established meaning critical psychology gives life to mainstream psychology. Freie Universitat Berlin is the institution in which critical psychology was started in the 1970s. It is largely based on the existing knowledge that psychology as a whole had accumulated by then but it also at the same time came up with its own theories and explanations as it sees the world at one particular moment. By the beginning of May 2007, there were very few words that had been translated into English. The main root of German Critical Psychology is the post-war babyboomers student revolt which happened during the late sixties. The main spark of the student revolt was the criticism of the political economy by Marx. Berlin was the best spot for the student revolt as it was a free city which was circumference by East Germany. East Germany was socialist. This led to the sociological foundations upon which critical psychology is built to be Marxist. They have not gotten a listening ear from the many figures found in Critical Psychology. Klaus Holzkamp is a very important author in this field as he wrote the book Grundlegung der Psychologie. If the title of the book was to be translated in English then it would read Foundations of Psychology. This book is very sophisticated in the Critical Psychology field. Klaus Holzkamp might just be the man to be stamped the founder of Critical Psychology as far as the theories are concerned. Klaus had already two books which talked majorly about the theory of science as well as the sensory perception. He felt that the book on the foundations of psychology gave psychologists a reason to research as the book explains the solid paradigm upon which psychological research can be done. The book views psychology as a scientific discipline that is pre-paradigmatic. Aleksey Leontyev provides a unique approach to historical psychology as well as activity theory. According to him, the actions of human beings are as a result of the evolution of culture as well as the biological evolution. Leontyev drew from Marxs work where culture and its concepts have been materialized. He emphasized that the cognition of an individual is a subset of social action and social action is mediated by tools which are man-made such as cultural artifacts, social action is also mediated by language as well as systems and symbols that are made by man. Leontyev viewed this as something that provides a clear distinction between human cognition and human culture. Holzcamp in his attempt to give a comprehensive as well as integrated set of categories that were researched by Aleksey Leontyev, he did come up with this sophisticated book. The book was based on the research that Aleksey Leontyev had done as explained. One other theory we see Holzcamp using in his book in the fiel d of Critical Psychology is one that was developed by Lucien Steve; theory of personality. The concept here is of social activity matricesÂ?. The matrices are seen as the structure of mediation between individual reproduction as well as social reproduction. With the various theories Klaus Holzkamp is seen to use, he does not forget the works that were done at the institution in which Critical Psychology was born; Free University of Berlin. The works that were done at Free University of Berlin was done by critical psychologists and their works was greatly influenced by Mark, Steve and Leontyev. The materials he used included books that were written on sensory perception, animal behavior or ethology, cognition and motivation. Ideas from Freuds psychoanalysis which is a form of play therapy used to treat disorders and he also incorporated ideas from Merleau-Pontys phenomenology as he explained his approach. Holzcamp did a lot of comparative as well as historical analysis of perception, the human reproductive action as well as cognition. The core finding that he identified the symbolic meaning whether constructed culturally or historically to be structures that are conceptual and specifically useful to be structures that the human being will create in relationships that are close so as to make culture material. They also create the structures in close relationship in a culture that is material within the context of social reproduction that have been formed specifically in history. With this in mind, Klaus Holzkamp had a problem with behaviorism which he referred to as stimulus-response psychology or in short, S-R psychology. He looked at the analysis of the linguistics and he also showed how behaviorism created the illusion that is had scientific objectivityÂ? but at the same time behaviorism was not relevant in its understanding of human actions that are culturally situated and inte ntional at the same time. Klaus Holzkamp came up with his own approach that he drew a lot of ideas from a man that goes by the name Kurt Lewin and this he does in Chapter nine of his book titled Foundations of Psychology. This approach was to objectivity as well as generalization. Before Klaus Holzkamp died in the year 1995, he wrote on learning. His work was out in 1993 and he looked at learning from the object side and not the learner. Holzkamp was out to reinterpret the theories that were developed by psychology that was conventional. This means that he looked at the theories from the view of a critical psychologist and the paradigms of critical psychology. The useful insights that were found in conventional psychology were integrated into critical psychology but at the same time picking out and criticizing their implications that were limiting. In S-R psychology, the intentional action and the subject were eliminated. In cognitive psychology, the intentional action as well as th e subject was taken into account. In the first part of the book, Holzkamp looks into the theories that were there in conventional psychology. The theories he focuses on most are those of learning. He then reinterprets the theories from a critical psychologist point of view. Jean Lave and Edwin Hutchins who contributed to the concept of classroom learning were very useful in the explanation of Holzkamps approach. In the second part of the book, Holzkamp looks at the modern world and the concept of classroom learning as something that is cultural and historical yet has an influence in socialization as well as learning. In the second part of the book, he looks at Michel Foucaults work of Discipline and Punish. According to Holzcamp, the historical way we know classroom learning is limiting to the student in that the ability of a student to learn is constrained to some finite teaching strategies. In his approaches, he strived to look for a way of learning that would make full use of the potential of the learner. Holzkamp explains expansive learning in the last part of the book which aims at overcoming the limitations that classroom learning presents. His ultimate plan was to write a book on life leadership but his demise came before he could go past the early stages of developing the book but some of this work was published in form of journals in Forum Kritische PsychologieÂ? and Argument. The period 1960s through to 1970s, critical psychology was known as radical psychology but the main reason it went by this term is to discourage the focus on the individual as the main object of analysis. It was also to discourage psychologists not to use the individual only as the only source of psychopathology. The close inspection of the role inspection plays was considered in radical psychology. The role of the society was looked at in the light that it causes and treats problems. Radical psychology looked at the change in society as an alternative therapy skill to treat illnesses of the mind as well as deal with the prevention of psychopathology. Anti-psychiatry was a term that was so common within psychiatry and so the British preferred the use of the term Critical Psychiatry. Up to today, the term Critical Psychology is still used to refer to the branch of psychology that seeks alternative methods of therapy to the conventional methods or forms of therapy that exist in the dis cipline of psychology. It is also against the idea of focusing so much on the individual that the influence the society has in the individual is not considered. In the 1990s, there were more authors writing about Critical Psychology. The one that caused a biggest shake and was most famous for its writings was an edited book and its title was Critical Psychology. This was a book written by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky. Many different introductory texts that were written in the United Kingdom and were focused on critical psychology have a particular interest in the discourse. This was argued by different people in critical psychology as being as dangerous as mainstream psychology as it heavily relies on something; language. Heavily relying on one thing in a dynamic world is dangerous when you are supposed to explain something that interacts with so many things and in different ways. In the year 1999, Ian Parker came up with a manifesto that was very influential. The manifesto was on the Annual Review of Critical Psychology as well as the online journal Radical Psychology. In the manifesto, Ian says that Critical Psychology should have th e following components; Close examination in a systematic way of the manner in which various kinds of psychological action as well as experience have more weight over that of others, the manner in which the accounts of psychologyÂ? which are dominant operate in ideologies as well as the service of the power. The manner in which the different varieties of psychology are constructed in the cultural and historical sense in their study and the manner in which the different kinds of psychology may assert or may refuse the assumptions of ideology of the mainstream psychological models The body of knowledge of the different kinds of the examination and the regulation by the individual himself or herself in day to day life and the manner in which psychological culture works when outside of the boundaries of academic practice as well as professional practice. The detail look at the manner in which mainstream psychology structures the professional work as well as the academic work in psychology and the manner in which day by day activities may provide a foundation for the act of resisting the happenings of the different disciplinary practices that are happening today. There are quite a number of journals that are international and are solely dedicated to Critical Psychology. Some of them include the Annual Review of Critical Psychology as well as the International Journal of Critical Psychology which is no longer being published. The journals lean more to the academic world. The Annual Review of Critical Psychology is an open access journal that runs online. In Britain, the Critical Psychologists and the Critical Psychiatrists have some commonality which they express via the Asylum Collective. Main Criticisms of Conventional psychology Different groups such as psychiatrists and patients as well as the public in general and the industrial lobbyists, or the very rich groups of society and the less rich groups of society, or even psychologists and their clients all have difference in power within the different groups. The psychiatrist is on a different power level as compared to the patient. They have met to discuss the same thing but it is clear that they will not discuss it from the same point of view. With such kind of treatments, the patient will mostly try to resist what the psychiatrist is saying. The psychiatrist and the patient may not agree especially when the patient has some knowledge on the same. Psychologists also have the same problem when dealing with their clients. They normally never have the same ground on which they base their actions. A patient will always want to stay in the comfort zone and what he or she went to do at the clinic is for him or her to be told that he or she is on the right course. The psychiatrist wants to gain millage as he or she interacts with the client but most of the time rather than not this millage are never easy to gain. The people who are very rich in society will definitely be at a very different level of power from the people who are less well-off in terms of finances. There are ideologies that the rich has formed about themselves and there are ideologies that the poor has formed about themselves. There also exist the theories the rich have come up about the poor and those that have come up about the rich. They are so different and I few were to put the two groups in a room there would be so much emotion that would feel the room. This already says a lot about their theories, they are based in the way they feel and not on how things are. Some poor people may have been raised by a mother who highly trained them to be beggars. They grow up not working for what they want in life. In life, you can work for whatever possibility possible that was create d by the creator of heaven and earth. The powers have been given to the human being but instead he or she will sit back and watch as things get out of hand for him o r her then start to blame some past experience or blame some one . As much as it is true that the way we relate with people I our childhood, the things that are said to us during our childhood and the things that are done to us during our childhood are very important in determining how we grow up, there exists so much media from which to learn from and so many people around us to learn from. There is no limitation as to what a human being can do that we are aware of in terms of improving their well being and taking it from one level to another. A human being can always improve himself. A human being can always fight for what he or she wants and still is in a position to wake up, shake the dust off and continue with life stronger than ever. The industrial lobbyists will have an angle from which they argue their points but the general public will always blame them for anything they can possibly utter when it comes to industries and some will blame them for their lives. Whatever the two groups, there will always be a power struggle and power differences. Whether it is a new generation and an old generation or the management of an organization and the operational tem of an organization or even the parent sand the children, there will always be a difference. The most basic of all is the differences that vary from one person to the other regardless of where they come from, their family or their workplace. There is already a power difference right there. Mainstream psychology as we have seen from the overview of psychology focuses mainly on the individual but it hardly has gone into the effects this different power groups brings to the individuals and how he reacts. There are also day to day activities that happen and these too have an effect on the person. The problem with not focusing on the different state of power that are inherent in different individuals as well as in different groups is the fact that mainstream psychology does not look at the way things change and there is no change in its vocabulary. In mainstream psychology, the way things are right now is the same way that things will be in the future as it assumes that the way things are now is the way things are naturally. Of course this is a dangerous way to look at things and results in accepting things as they are. If the world accepted things as they are in some sectors than there would be no change. There would be no convenient ways of doing things. There would be no challenge and this is not even in the nature of human beings. Personally, I love the way of being that I assume when I have a challenge to take on and on this challenge I have to prove myself. There is a feeling of satisfaction. Some value to life is achieved. The victim bears the blame and he or she feels that there is something wrong with him or her. It is the right of the client to know that there is something right with him or her and that is the reason as to why he or she is in the presence of the psychologist. In mainstream psychology, the individual is blamed for everything that is wrong or right with him or her yet this same individual exists within a society and he or she is embedded in the same society. Critical psychology has also benefitted from other approaches other than the Marxist roots upon which they are based on. These include; transpersonal psychology, liberation psychology, ecopsychology as well as developmental psychology. Erica Burman in developmental psychol ogy is also very important The disciplines within psychology have began to come up with their own way of looking at things and have different orientations born from the criticism of mainstream psychology. These include Community psychology as well as critical health psychology. These have strengthened the clients rights in mainstream psychology. The client is now in a position to look at many influences that may have put the client in the position he or she is in and in this way, he or she is able to look at life in a different ways and overcome whatever is the problem. Modern day also has critical psychologists that are always improving modern day psychology. A brief of a few of them is explained below. (Doidge, 2007) asserts that neuroplasticity is the biggest discovery about the brain. In his discovery, he says plasticity can make major contributions to the rigid behaviors development such as bad habits and addictions. (Breggin, 2008) asserts that the drugs being used in mainstream psychology may lead to more problems than what is already in a client. This has helped shape the rights of the client in mainstream psychology. The drugs given to clients in mainstream psychology may cause violence as well as suicide, they have serious side effects, they also have the potential of causing mental dysfuntions among many other hazards that the drugs pose to the health of the client so that the client is seen to go looking for more problems in his or bid to look for solutions. Dorothy Rowe has also contributed to modern day psychology and she comes from the point of view that depression is created at the clinic and she says as much as it is available in different cultures and people, its cu re is simple; wisdom (Rowe, 2003). She is an Australian psychologist who focuses on depression. Another very important psychologist in this area is David Healy and he is more concerned with the mental health of the client. Mainstream psychology is being questioned by David Healy on their direction when they deal with clients. Their aim is to put some companies in business and to continue to give the companies which are mostly drug companies a lot of business. Modern psychiatry is lucky to have a critique such as David Healy on board as the client is now more aware of his or her rights owing to all the knowledge from critical psychology. John Jureindi also has criticized Freuds key mechanisms in psychoanalytical people can be explained in a better way without the cognitive theory. With help from Obrien, they conclude that most of the activity from the human mind is unconscious and very little is from the conscious mind but that which is out of the conscious mind can be brought back t o the conscious mind by proper cueing. Recommendations to add to the body of knowledge of Critical Psychology It is very true that there are many factors that affect the lives of human beings. According to me, I see life as very simple but it is when one reflects into their lives that they get to realize the simplicity of life. Life is not as complex as people may think. For those who believe in some super power above human beings then we all know that they created this earth. For most Holy Books of different religions the world was created by the power of language. This is where I concur with Critical Psychology. Language brought the natural things we see today human beings included into existence so it will be very prudent to put language on our list. From the above, we learn that we create our world by what we say about ourselves and to ourselves. It is very clear to me that most people beat themselves up real hard. We say things to ourselves that if we were to be told the same things by someone else to our safe we would gladly reach for our guns if we do not have the power to punch. The immediate response a human being will have is to punch someone on the face because that person has said the things the same human beings say to her or himself. I find this quite interesting. There is always that voice that the human being will embrace and make it law. Why should one embrace negative thoughts and negative experiences to make them law. Why cant he or she embrace the things he or she wants for himself or herself as law? There is nothing to lose really but a new whole world of possibilities to explore when we embrace what we really want and go for it. Yes, we do go through experiences that shape us. They make us become who we are but we should realize that we do not need to be slaves of the past. If we live in the past then none of us would be here now. People need to be trained to be present through life. When we are present now then we create better, we go through life lighter and we tend to form real relationships and this leads to the creation of our future now. There are things we go through and we hold on to them maybe because we took them too seriously and therefore hurt so bad. We live life dragging everything we perceived as hurting to us and offensive to us and make them the centre of our lives and so we behave in a certain way so as to justify that very hurting thing that so and so did or said in the past. For most people, the past can be a very long time. It can range from the shortest time possible to the longest time the human being lives this life. The main thing that clients of mainstream psychology need to be told is that they can live through life being freer when they give up those things they are holding to as they set them back. It is the right of the client to be treated in the best way possible and all methods known to psychology should be used for the client to have a better life but the basics of life have to be outlined. Something else that gives as psychological problems is when we tell people that we would so something and then we dont do it but we do not let the other person the moment we realized we could not do it that we will not do it. When we do this day in and day out then we feel that we have this major problem that is stopping us from honoring our word to the people around us as well as to ourselves. This brings about a flood of thoughts and again brings memories from the past that can be pretty nasty. In my view, it is the right of the client to be told of these insights that I got out of observing real time experiences. Once they are told of these they begin to reflect into their lives and they can even identify something they have been holding on to and making it wrong for their lives. This recommendation along with what is already known in mainstream psychology as well as critical psychology is very important in treating a client. The client has then a wide variety of options to use as tools to use against different people. Conclusion It is very clear that the critics of mainstream psychology have greatly assisted the clients of psychiatrists and psychologists to know exactly what they are getting into when dealing with psychologists and psychiatrists. The clients now know their rights and are more informed of what is good for them in terms of the drugs and what is not good for them. Most critiques have suggested the natural process of healing and different steps one can follow to overcome mental disorders. It is therefore safe to conclude that critical psychology is essential to clients rights in Mainstream psychology. References Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times,Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 2002 (2), p. 2-9. Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 16 (2). Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times, Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7-8]. Early practices of ancient psychology included procedures such as lobotomy which involved removal of specific tissues of the brain believed to cause certain mental problems. Lobotomies were used (though uncommonly) in the medical practices of Egypt, China and Persia along with many other ancient civilizations. Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246. The Principles of Psychology (1890), with introduction by George A. Miller, Harvard University Press, 1983 paperback, ISBN 0-674-70625-0 (combined edition, 1328 pages)Carnes, P. (1983). Out of the shadows: Understanding sexual addiction. Minneapolis, MN: CompCare Publications. Klaus Holzkamp (1992): On Doing Psychology Critically. Theory and Psychology 2, S.193-204; for further references see also Charles Tolman (1994): Psychology, Society and Subjectivity: An Introduction to German Critical Psychology, London: Routledge and Thomas Teo (1998): Klaus Holzkamp and the Rise and Fall of German Critical Psychology. History of Psychology 1998, Vol. 1, Nr. 3; Wolfgang Maiers (1999): Critical Psychology An Unfinished Modern Project. In: Wolfgang Maiers et al. (Eds.): Challenges to Theoretical Psychology, 457-466 Klaus Holzkamp (1983): Grundlegung der Psychologie. Frankfurt/M.: Campus Klaus Holzkamp (1964), Theorie und Experiment in der Psychologie. Berlin: de Gruyter (Theory and Experiment in Psychology); Klaus Holzkamp(1968): Wissenschaft als Handlung. Versuch einer neuen Grundlegung der Wissenschaftslehre. Berlin: de Gruyter (Science as Action A new Approach to the Theory of Science) Klaus Holzkamp (1973): Sinnliche Erkenntnis. Historischer Ursprung und gesellschaftliche Funktion der Wahrnehmung. Frankfurt/M.: AthenÃÆ'ƒÂ ¤um (Sensory Perception: Historical Origins and Social Functions of Perception Volker Schurig (1975): Naturgeschichte des Psychischen 1: Psychogenese und elementare Formen der Tierkommunikation. (Natural History of the Psyche 1: Psychogenesis and Elementary Forms of Animal Communication. Frankfurt/M.: Campus; Volker Schurig (1975): Naturgeschichte des Psychischen 2: Lernen und Abstraktionsleistungen bei Tieren (Natural History of the Psyche 2: Learning and Abstraction Capabilities in Animals. Frankfurt/M. Campus; Volker Schurig (1976): Die Entstehung des BewuÃÆ'Æ’Ã…Â ¸tseins (The Emergence of Consciousness). Frankfurt/M.: Campus; . Frankfurt/M.: Campus; Ute Osterkamp (1975/1976): Grundlagen der Psychologischen Motivationsforschung (Foundations of Psychological Research of Motivation, Frankfurt/M: Campus (2 Volumes)Rainer Seidel (1976): Denken. Psychologische Analyse der Entstehung und LÃÆ'ƒÂ ¶sung von Problemen. (Cognition. Psychological Analysis of Formulating and Solving Problems. Frankfurt/M.: Campus Klaus Holzkamp (1987): Die Verkennung von HandlungsbegrÃÆ'ƒÂ ¼ndungen als empirische Zusammenhangsannahmen in sozialpsychologischen Theorien: Methodologische Fehlorientierung infolge von Begriffsverwirrung (Mistaking Reasons for Causes in Theories of Social Psychology: Methodological Errors as a Result of Conceptual Confusion), Forum Kritische Psychologie 19, Berlin: Argument Verlag, p. 23-59 and Klaus Holzkamp (1993): Lernen: Subjektwissenschaftliche Grundlegung. Frankfurt/M.: Campus, Chapter 1: HinfÃÆ'ƒÂ ¼hrung auf das Verfahren der Problementwicklung (Introduction to the Sequence of Presentation), pp. 17-39 Klaus Holzkamp (1993): Lernen: Subjektwissenschaftliche Grundlegung (Learning: Subject- Scientific Foundations). Frankfurt/M.: Campus Klaus Holzkamp (1995): AlltÃÆ'ƒÂ ¤gliche LebensfÃÆ'ƒÂ ¼hrung als subjektwissenschaftliches Grundkonzept (Everyday Life Leadership as Basic Concept of a Scientific Theory of the Subject). Das Argument, 37. Jahrgang, Heft 6, November/December 1995 Fox, D. Prilleltensky, I. (1997). Critical Psychology: An Introduction. Sage. on-line Prilleltensky, I Nelson, G. (2002). Doing psychology critically: Making a difference in diverse settings. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan. Kincheloe, J. Horn, R. (2006). The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology. 4 vols. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press. IbaÃÆ'ƒÂ ±ez, T. Rueda, L.I. (eds). (1997). Critical Social Psychology. Sage Books. on-line Harwood, v. (2006) Diagnosing Disorderly Children. London New York: Routledge. Sloan, T. (eds). (2000). Critical Psychology: Voices for Change. London: Macmillan. Kincheloe, J. Steinberg, S. (1993). A Tentative Description of Post-Formal Thinking: The Critical Confrontation with Cognitive Thinking. Harvard Educational Review, 63 (2), 296-320. Prilleltensky, I. (1997). Values, assumptions and practices: Assessing the moral implications of psychological discourse and action. American Psychologist, 52(5), 517-535. Parker, I. (1999) ËœCritical Psychology: Critical Links, Radical Psychology: A Journal of Psychology, Politics and Radicalism (on-line) Parker, I. (2003) ËœPsychology is so critical, only Marxism can save us now, (on-line) Dan Aalbers (2000). Canadian Psychology, 41, 75-76. Ben Anderson (1999). Journal of Community Applied Social Psychiology, 9, 243-245. Bob Burden (1998). British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 461-462. Angela R. Febbraro (1999). Theory Psychology, 9, 716-718. Christine Griffin (1998). British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 611-612. Ann Llewellyn (1997, Autumn). History and Philosophy of Psychology Newsletter, 25, 24-26. John Rowan (1998, November). Self Society, 26 (5), 53-54. Tholene Sodi (1999). Towards a liberatory psychology. Annual Review of Critical Psychology, 1, 171-174 [Review Essay]. Jeremy Swinson (2000). Mentoring and Tutoring, 8:2. Dorothy Rowe (2003), Depression: The Way Out of Your Prison Peter R. Breggin (2008), Medication Madness: A psychiatrist exposes the dangers of mood- altering medications Norman Doidge, (2007), Brain That Changes Itself